Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

This law is also called Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule.

The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:

At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.
Adopting the convention that every current flowing towards the node is positive and that every current flowing away is negative (or the other way around), this principle can be stated as:


n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.

This formula is also valid for complex currents:


The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is the product of the current (in amps) and the time (which is measured in seconds).

Changing charge density
Physically speaking, the restriction regarding the "capacitor plate" means that Kirchhoff's current law is only valid if the charge density remains constant in the point that it is applied to. This is normally not a problem because of the strength of electrostatic forces: the charge buildup would cause repulsive forces to disperse the charges.

However, a charge build-up can occur in a capacitor, where the charge is typically spread over wide parallel plates, with a physical break in the circuit that prevents the positive and negative charge accumulations over the two plates from coming together and cancelling. In this case, the sum of the currents flowing into one plate of the capacitor is not zero, but rather is equal to the rate of charge accumulation. However, if the displacement current dD/dt is included, Kirchhoff's current law once again holds. (This is really only required if one wants to apply the current law to a point on a capacitor plate. In circuit analyses, however, the capacitor as a whole is typically treated as a unit, in which case the ordinary current law holds since exactly the current that enters the capacitor on the one side leaves it on the other side.)

More technically, Kirchhoff's current law can be found by taking the divergence of Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction and combining with Gauss's law, yielding:


This is simply the charge conservation equation (in integral form, it says that the current flowing out of a closed surface is equal to the rate of loss of charge within the enclosed volume (Divergence theorem)). Kirchhoff's current law is equivalent to the statement that the divergence of the current is zero, true for time-invariant ρ, or always true if the displacement current is included with J.

Kirchhoff's circuit laws

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the conservation of charge and energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by Gustav Kirchhoff. Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws (see also Kirchhoff's laws for other meanings of that term).

Both circuit rules can be directly derived from Maxwell's equations, but Kirchhoff preceded Maxwell and instead generalized work by Georg Ohm.



Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's second rule.

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences around any closed circuit must be zero.
Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:


Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The voltages may also be complex:


This law is based on the conservation of energy whereby voltage is defined as the energy per unit charge. The total amount of energy gained per unit charge must equal the amount of energy lost per unit charge. This seems to be true as the conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another.

Electric field and electric potential
Kirchhoff's voltage law as stated above is equivalent to the statement that a single-valued electric potential can be assigned to each point in the circuit (in the same way that any conservative vector field can be represented as the gradient of a scalar potential). Then the sum of the changes in this potential that occur as one makes an imaginary traverse around any closed loop in the circuit should be equal to zero.

This could be viewed as a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy. Otherwise, it would be possible to build a perpetual motion machine that passed a current in a circle around the circuit.

Considering that electric potential is defined as a line integral over an electric field, Kirchhoff's voltage law can be expressed equivalently as


which states that the line integral of the electric field around closed loop C is zero.

In order to return to the more special form, this integral can be "cut in pieces" in order to get the voltage at specific components.

This is a simplification of Faraday's law of induction for the special case where there is no fluctuating magnetic field linking the closed loop. Therefore, it practically suffices for explaining circuits containing only resistors and capacitors.

In the presence of a changing magnetic field the electric field is not conservative and it cannot therefore define a pure scalar potential—the line integral of the electric field around the circuit is not zero. This is because energy is being transferred from the magnetic field to the current (or vice versa). In order to "fix" Kirchhoff's voltage law for circuits containing inductors, an effective potential drop, or electromotive force (emf), is associated with each inductance of the circuit, exactly equal to the amount by which the line integral of the electric field is not zero by Faraday's law of induction.

Voltage divider

In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a simple linear circuit that produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin). Voltage division refers to the partitioning of a voltage among the components of the divider.

The formula governing a voltage divider is similar to that for a current divider, but the ratio describing voltage division places the selected impedance in the numerator, unlike current division where it is the unselected components that enter the numerator.

A simple example of a voltage divider consists of two resistors in series or a potentiometer. It is commonly used to create a reference voltage, and may also be used as a signal attenuator at low frequencies.

MOSFETs

The most widely used and widely known FETs are MOSFETs (metal oxide semiconductor FETs), which come in NMOS (n-channel) and PMOS (p-channel) varieties. On a chip, NMOS and PMOS transistors are wired together in a complementary fashion to create CMOS logic, which is the most predominant and used in almost every electronic device today. See MOSFET and n-type silicon.

FETs and Bipolar

FET-based silcon chips are easier to construct than their bipolar counterparts. FETs switch a little slower than bipolar transistors, but use less power. Once the gate terminal on an FET has been charged, no more current is needed to keep that transistor on (closed) for the duration of time required. By comparison, a bipolar transistor requires a small amount of current flowing to keep the transistor on. While the current for one transistor may be negligible, it adds up when millions are switching simultaneously. The heat dissipated on bipolar limits the total number of transistors that can be built on the chip, which is why CMOS logic (based on FETs) is used to build chips with millions of transistors.

JFET

(Field Effect Transistor) One of two major categories of transistor; the other is bipolar. FETs use a gate element that, when charged, creates an electromagnetic field that changes the conductivity of a silicon channel and turns the transistor on or off. FETs are fabricated as individually packaged discrete components as well as by the hundreds of millions on a single chip.

Intensive and extensive properties

In the physical sciences, an intensive property (also called a bulk property), is a physical property of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system: it is scale invariant. By contrast, an extensive property of a system does depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system. (see: examples) Some intensive properties, such as viscosity, are empirical macroscopic quantities and are not relevant to extremely small systems.

For example, density is an intensive quantity (it does not depend on the quantity), while mass and volume are extensive quantities. Note that the ratio of two extensive quantities that scale in the same way is scale-invariant, and hence an intensive quantity.